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Abstract The lungs of squamate reptiles (lizards and snakes) are highly diverse, exhibiting single chambers, multiple chambers, transitional forms with two to three chambers, along with a suite of other anatomical features, including finger-like epithelial projections into the body cavity known as diverticulae. During embryonic development of the simple, sac-like lungs of anoles, the epithelium is pushed through the openings of a pulmonary smooth muscle mesh by the forces of luminal fluid pressure. This process of stress ball morphogenesis generates the faveolar epithelium typical of squamate lungs. Here, we compared embryonic lung development in brown anoles, leopard geckos, and veiled chameleons to determine if stress ball morphogenesis is conserved across squamates and to understand the physical processes that generate transitional-chambered lungs with diverticulae. We found that epithelial protrusion through the holes in a pulmonary smooth muscle mesh is conserved across squamates. Surprisingly, however, we found that luminal inflation is not conserved. Instead, leopard geckos and veiled chameleons appear to generate their faveolae via epithelial folding downstream of epithelial proliferation. We also found experimental and computational evidence suggesting that the transitional chambers and diverticulae of veiled chameleon lungs develop via apical constriction, a process known to be crucial for airway branching in the bird lung. Thus, distinct morphogenetic mechanisms generate epithelial diversity in squamate lungs, which may underpin their species-specific physiological and ecological adaptations. 

Abstract The human fovea is known for its distinctive pit‐like appearance, which results from the displacement of retinal layers superficial to the photoreceptors cells. The photoreceptors are found at high density within the foveal region but not the surrounding retina. Efforts to elucidate the mechanisms responsible for these unique features have ruled out cell death as an explanation for pit formation and changes in cell proliferation as the cause of increased photoreceptor density. These findings have led to speculation that mechanical forces acting within and on the retina during development underly the formation of foveal architecture. Here we review eye morphogenesis and retinal remodeling in human embryonic development. Our meta‐analysis of the literature suggests that fovea formation is a protracted process involving dynamic changes in ocular shape that start early and continue throughout most of human embryonic development. From these observations, we propose a new model for fovea development.